For example, an elevator assembly hardover (in which the elevator in a fully extended position sticks because the hinge catches on the tail frame) proposed by the Egyptians was discounted because the flight recorder data showed the elevator was in a "split condition". The fact is that the plane crashed and everyone on board died. All 217 people on board died. The engines were shut off about 15 seconds before the electrical system failed and flight data recording ceased. [3], The cockpit voice recorder (CVR) recorded the captain excusing himself to go to the lavatory, followed 30 seconds later by the first officer saying in Egyptian Arabic "Tawkalt ala Allah," which can be translated as "I put my trust in God." Historic Mysteries is an Amazon Associate and earns from qualifying purchases. "[34], During a press conference held on November 19, 1999, NTSB chairman Jim Hall denounced such speculation, and said that it had "done a disservice to the long-standing friendship between the people of the United States of America and Egypt. The EgyptAir Airbus A320 flying overnight from Paris to Cairo crashed into the eastern Mediterranean Sea on 19 May 2016. The following is what they believe took place on EgyptAir Flight 990 prior to the crash. Crew and passengers on EgyptAir Flight 990, as provided by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which runs New York's Kennedy International Airport, and by relatives and friends. Kecelakaan pesawat ini menewaskan semua penumpangnya yang berjumlah 203 penumpang dan . The U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) stated that the actions of the copilot caused the crash, but Egyptian authorities blamed mechanical failure. The captain tried to pull back on the control column while pushing the throttles to increase power, only to realize that the fuel was cut off from both engines. Others countered that Mossad had targeted them. Although the crash of Flight 990 has some eerie echoes of Flight 800, and while investigators are making an effort to conduct the inquiry differently, there are also many factual differences that have colored the responses to the two disasters. Accept Read More. On October 31, 1999, EgyptAir flight 990 crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, roughly 100km south of Nantucket, Massachusetts, killing all 217 people onboard. All those on board203 passengers and 14 crew memberswere killed. Speech analysts concluded that his speech patterns did not indicate stress. The 767-300ER is a widebody aircraft with a typical capacity of 261 passengers in a two-class configuration and a range of 5,980 NM (11,070 km). [3] Two minutes later, the controller contacted ARINC to determine if Flight 990 had switched to an oceanic frequency too early. [4] While noting that the damage did indeed exist, the NTSB countered that it was more likely a result of the crash rather than a pre-existing problem, as the 767 is designed to remain airworthy even with two PCUs failed.[3]. Death on the Nile Movie - Denial. The 2016 crash of an EgyptAir flight that killed all 66 people on board was . In Egypt, where EgyptAir was the flag carrier (national airline), the NTSB findings were unpopular. The Cairo Times reported, "The deceased pilot's nephew has lashed out in particular against speculation that his uncle could have been a religious extremist. After Flight 800, families of dozens of victims were sequestered at the Ramada Inn at Kennedy International Airport, where instead of finding sanctuary and a stream of reliable information, they chiefly encountered confusion. Command first officer Anwar initially protested, but eventually relented. 2009-2021 Historic Mysteries. The two 767s involved were assembled back-to-back and had identical Pratt & Whitney PW4000 engines. case, treatment of the families of victims has also changed substantially. ''At this stage, things are moving much more smoothly, and we are very pleased with that,'' the official said. But aviation and law enforcement officials pursuing clues in the crash say that one thing is crystal clear: they intend to learn from missteps made during the protracted, often contentious, sometimes mishandled inquiry into the crash of another jumbo jet departing on the same flight path 40 months ago, Trans World Airlines Flight 800. The reason Batouty commanded the plane to dive is unknown. At 1:51:15, the aircraft entered another steep dive, with an average descent rate of around 20,000 feet (6,100m) per minute. This was the last transmission received from the flight. An active captain and a first officer, as well as a relief captain and a relief first officer, were part of the crew. Captain Ahmed el-Habashi, who had been out of the cockpit managed to struggle back in, and shouted: "What's happening, Gamil? "[33] Langewiesche said that "people involved directly in the investigation" had "presented a uniform party line, a uniform face with very few cracks. EgyptAir Flight 990 (MS990/MSR990) was a regularly scheduled flight from Los Angeles International Airport, United States, to Cairo International Airport, Egypt, with a stop at John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York City. Either Batouty controlled it or EgyptAir Flight 990 had enough malfunctions on board to execute all of these commands without any help. The airspace is divided into "areas", and "Area F" was the section that oversaw the airspace through which Flight 990 was flying. Yesterday three . Transatlantic commercial air traffic travels via a system of routes called the North Atlantic Tracks, and Flight 990 was the only aircraft at the time assigned to fly North Atlantic Track Zulu. The law also firmly established the role of the Red Cross in providing counseling and other aid in the hours and days after a disaster, said Phil Zepeda, a Red Cross spokesman at the Newport family assistance center. Everyone on board was killed. Ever Burning Lamps Remaining Lit For Centuries. He said those facts justified the F.B.I. . The captain is then recorded as saying, "get away in the engines" (this is the literal translation that appears in the NTSB transcript), followed by "shut the engines". ''The ballroom was like a convention selling something, with these poor families sitting around, surrounded by police organizations,'' recalled Hans Ephraimson-Abt. Though FBI agents have joined the investigation and the cause of the crash remains very much a mystery, U.S. officials . In that case, the remarkable efforts involved in retrieving, reassembling and analyzing thousands of shards of airplane were often overshadowed by disputes between investigators seeking hints of a criminal act or a mechanical flaw. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The speculation, in part, was based on leaks from an unnamed federal law-enforcement official that the crew member in the co-pilot's seat was recorded as saying, "I made my decision now. On October 31, 1999, the Boeing 767-300ER operating the route crashed into the Atlantic Ocean about 60 miles (100km) south of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, killing all 217 passengers and crew on board. The Legend of the Bunyip: Devil Spirit of (In Pics) Ten Extinct Animals which Survive only in Drawings. . (3), The E,C.A.A. The Egyptian authorities refused to accept the proposal to hand the investigation over to the FBI, so the NTSB was forced to continue the investigation alone, despite it falling outside of their investigative purview. Video source: Mayday. After the crash, newspapers in Cairo were prevented by censors from reporting the officers' presence on the flight. The F.B.I., for its part, felt it had a responsibility to move aggressively. The accident airplane's nose-down movements did not result from a failure in the elevator control system or any other airplane failure. 3:02. On October 31, 1999, the Boeing 767 operating the route crashed into the Atlantic Ocean killing all 217 passengers and crew on board. [12] Included in the passenger manifest were 33 Egyptian military officers returning from a training exercise; among them were two brigadier generals, a colonel, a major, and four other air force officers. During that time, relief first officer Al-Batouti was alone in the cockpit. Langewiesche: "Two years afterward the U.S. and Egyptian governments are still quarreling over the causea clash that grows out of cultural division, not factual uncertainty. The controller then contacted a nearby aircraft, Lufthansa Flight 499 (LH 499), a Boeing 747 en route from Mexico City to Frankfurt, and asked the flight's crew to try to raise Flight 990, but they were unable to make radio contact, although they also reported they were not receiving any emergency locator transmitter signals. In the clear blue sky, a horrific sight emerged: a Boeing 747 carrying over 200 people had been destroyed in a massive mid-air explosion. October 31, 2000 / 9:15 AM / AP. After formally ceding responsibility for the investigation of the accident to the NTSB, the Egyptian authorities became increasingly unhappy with the direction the investigation was heading, and launched their own investigation in the weeks following the accident. After the crash, at November 14, 1999,[38] the airline changed the flight number for the JFK to Cairo route from MS990 to MS986, with the outbound changing from MS989 to MS985, and discontinued the service to Los Angeles. Moments later, the active captain briefly leaves the cockpit to use the lavatory. The plane vanished from radar at 2.29.am local time Thursday morning, according to Greek air . [35], Unifying all the Egyptian press was a stridently held belief that "it is inconceivable that a pilot would kill himself by crashing a jet with 217 people aboard. The U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) stated that the actions of the copilot caused the crash, but Egyptian authorities blamed mechanical failure. There were passengers on the EgyptAir Flight 990 from North America, the Middle East, Europe, and Africa, so there was international interest in their findings. The captain managed to direct the plane into a steep climb, but Batoutys controls were still conflicting, despite the Captains order to pull with me. The plane went into a second nosedive before EgyptAir Flight 990 met the Atlantic Ocean at a high speed, killing 217 people. [5], Flight 990 was being flown in a Boeing 767-366ER aircraft with registration SU-GAP, named Thuthmosis III after a pharaoh from the 18th Dynasty. Report of Investigation of Accident: Egypt Air Flight 990, Oct 31, 1999.) They claim that investigators in the United States were not thorough and that their conclusion is baseless. THE CRASH OF EGYPTAIR 990: THE INVESTIGATION; In Jet Crash Inquiry, Learning From Past Missteps, https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/03/nyregion/crash-egyptair-990-investigation-jet-crash-inquiry-learning-past-missteps.html. The family refuses the suggestions that Batouty played a role in the crash of Egyptair flight 990 last Oct. Apart from work, Omar has a passion for traveling, visiting aviation sites, and plane spotting. when EgyptAir Flight 990 plunged into . The final recorded words are the captain repeatedly stating, "Pull with me" but the FDR data indicated that the elevator surfaces remained in a split condition (with the left surface commanding nose up and the right surface commanding nose down) until the FDR and CVR stopped recording. No other aircraft were in the area, and no indication was given that an explosion occurred on board. A high-ranking member of the US team agreed. On a summer day in 1996, a fiery blast rocked the streets of New York. [3], The records of the radar returns then indicate a sharp descent, with the plane dropping 14,600ft (4,500m) in 36 seconds before its last altitude report at 06:50:29 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC; 01:50:29 Eastern Standard Time). One senior safety board official echoed the sense that things were different. [23], Osama El-Baz, an adviser to Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, said, "This pilot can't know anything about the plane; the chances that he has any information [about the crash of Flight 990] are very slim. 1 2 3 AIR CRASH INVESTIGATIONS, MECHANICAL FAILURE OR SUICIDE? The FDR and CVR were recovered within days by the U.S. Navy's Deep Drone III submersible. For the accident investigators in Egypt, the game then became not pursuing the truth, but backing the official line. During the first 48 hours of the investigation into the EgyptAir 990 crash, Mr. Hall dominated the news briefings. Original reporting and incisive analysis, direct from the Guardian every morning. With numerous years of technical and research experience under his belt, Omar aims to focus on research-based aviation practices. Everyone on board was killed. EgyptAir Flight 990 was a regularly scheduled flight from Los Angeles International Airport, United States, to Cairo International Airport, Egypt, with a stop at John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York City. The abrupt destruction, as well as that it involved an airliner whose destination was Egypt, a country with a history of terrorist problems, naturally led to the involvement of the F.B.I. Shelly Barclay writes on a variety of topics from animal facts to mysteries in history. At 1:50:19, the flight reached its maximum rate of descent, 39,000 feet (12,000m) per minute. Taha attested that first officer Gameel Al-Batouti had intentionally crashed the plane to exact revenge on an airline executive, who had recently demoted Al-Batouti, and happened to be onboard. The first officer replies "It's shut". [17], Search-and-rescue operations were launched within minutes of the loss of radar contact, with the bulk of the operation being conducted by the United States Coast Guard. MORE. It will conclude that el-Batouty forced the New York-to-Cairo plane down. . The aircraft was a Boeing 767 model 366 ER. Four were nonrevenue EgyptAir crew members. At 1:20 a.m. on October 31, 1999, Captain Ahmad el Habashy, the command pilot of EgyptAir flight 990, eased his Boeing 767 off departure runway 22R at New York's John F. Kennedy International . "[35], On November 20, 1999, the Associated Press quoted senior American officials as saying that the quotation was not in fact on the recording. The episode was broadcast with the title "EgyptAir 990" in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Asia. He told him that as a result of his sexual activities he would not fly transatlantic routes - which carry extra pay - again. The National Transportation Safety Board investigation indicates the crash of EgyptAir Flight 990 was a result of actions taken by Gamil El Batouty. Shortly after landing, at 12:36 local time, an explosion was heard in the front section of the passenger cabin, followed by smoke and then fire. ''With each case, we become more efficient and effective. Relative Of A Victim Of The Egyptair Flight 990 Crash Is Consoled After A Memorial Service In Newport, Rhode Island November 7, 1999. officials steer clear of the podium. But if the facts are different in some ways, the handling of the current investigation reflects a switch in conduct driven by much more than differing circumstances. All 217 people on board died. After some reluctance, the active first officer gets relieved. . Al Shaab also accused US officials of secretly recovering the FDR, reprogramming it, and throwing it back into the water to be publicly recovered. They included 30 Egyptians, 15 French and two Canadians . International aviation agreements gave Egypt the right to investigate the crash, but that country initially deferred to the American NTSB. We'll assume you're ok with this, but you can opt-out if you wish. 44:00. [3], While the cruise crew was intended to take over far into the flight, relief first officer Al-Batouti entered the cockpit and recommended that he relieve the command first officer 20 minutes after takeoff. The Egyptians found that sheared rivets in the elevator control mechanism caused the problem, and that everyone in the cockpit was working together to regain control up to the time the plane hit the water. A White House official said the Clinton administration had pressed for the agencies to work more effectively in the aftermath of the Flight 800 crash, and this week saw encouraging signs of change. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. "[33] Langewiesche argued that "in the stonewalling, they were revealing themselves" and that if they truly believed Batouti were innocent, they would have invited Langewiesche to see proof of this theory.[33]. Some opined that it was an action (and potentially a conspiracy) of Muslim extremists against Egypt. Two weeks after the crash, the NTSB proposed handing the investigation over to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, as the evidence they had collected suggested that a criminal act had taken place, and that the crash was intentional rather than accidental. National Transportation Safety Board investigators have now . Saying "I rely on God", he switched off the auto-pilot and pushed the plane into a dive. FedEx Flight 647 Boeing MD-10-10F (MD-10) Aircraft N364FE Crash On Landing - NTSB. Anca Yunseo. The plane was a little bit more than 10 years old. 27 febrero, 2023 . In the Flight 800 crash, investigators eventually concluded that an explosion in the center fuel tank was responsible for the tragedy. 'If you wanted to go shopping in New York, he was the man to speak to, because he knew all the stores. The blackbox recordings indicate that Rushdy had left his first-class seat and entered the cockpit. [3] Several subsequent "primary" returns (simple radar reflections without the encoded Mode C altitude information) were received by ATC, the last being at 06:52:05. [4], William Langewiesche, an aviation journalist, said: "[I]n the case of the Egyptians, they were following a completely different line of thinking. He said: "It was more revenge against Rushdy than just a suicide.". The claim that Batuti's words in the last moments ["In Allah I trust"] are evidence of his suicidal intentions exacerbated Egyptian reactions. The plane went down in international waters, legally giving Egypt jurisdiction over the case, but because the US National Transportation Safety Board was far more experienced, Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak asked that it take over the investigation. Hatem Roushdy, EgyptAir employee but not part of the crew. It seemed to me that they knew very well that their man, Batouti, had done this. Several authorities, including the Egyptian Civil Aviation Authority (ECAA), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), took part in the crash investigation. Less than four minutes later, its wreckage was floating in the Atlantic Ocean. ''I hope the other thing -- not only with the F.B.I., across the board -- is to fight the tendency to speculate,'' Mr. Schiliro said. Air France Flight 439, another Boeing 747 en route from Mexico City to Paris, was then asked to overfly the last known position of Flight 990, but that crew reported nothing out of the ordinary. "I think [el-Batouty] had been looking at the door, looking at the moment when Rushdy is out of the cockpit," Mr Hamdy said. Within a day, they began moving to Newport, R.I., where their numbers had swelled yesterday to more than 270 people, Red Cross officials said. I didn't even see Jim Hall for a month.''. Egyptair Flight. He is a spokesman for the Air Crash Victims Family Group, an informal association of kin of victims of the Flight 800 crash, the 1998 crash of Swissair Flight 111, and other aviation accidents. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Ahmed El Habashy was the command captain. As the Egyptian investigation forwarded various mechanical failure scenarios, they were each tested by the NTSB and found not to match the factual evidence. France's aviation accident investigation bureau has confirmed that EgyptAir Flight MS804 sent signals reporting that smoke was detected on the jet before it plunged into the Mediterranean Sea on . Within days of the incident, the Egyptian Civil Aviation Ministry claimed that the . Summary: 20 minutes after takeoff, EgyptAir 990 was enjoying a smooth ride as it climbed above Nantucket's coastline. On October 31st, 1999, Egypt Air Flight 990 is heading out over the Atlantic Ocean to Cairo. Egypt Air Flight 990 (MS990) was a regularly scheduled flight from Los Angeles International Airport, United States, to Cairo International Airport, Egypt, with a stop at John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York City. Did you shut the engines?" EgyptAir Flight 990 nose-dived into the Atlantic Ocean, 60 miles off the coast of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts at 1:50 am. [3], Because of the 10-hour scheduled flight time, the flight required two complete flight crews, each consisting of one captain and one first officer. Another EgyptAir pilot told the Federal Bureau of Investigation months after the crash that Egyptair's chief 767 pilot, who was a passenger on flight 990, demoted Mr. Batouti a few hours before . The similarities are that a jumbo jet left Kennedy International Airport and abruptly fell into the ocean with no distress call. On the morning of October 31, 1999, the EgyptAir Flight 990, a Boeing 767, left John F Kennedy (JFK) International Airport for Cairo. [27] Taha also is reported to have said that he wanted to "stop all lies about the disaster," and to put much of the blame on EgyptAir management. [3] The ECAA concluded that the incident was caused by mechanical failure of the aircraft's elevator control system. The search-and-rescue operation was suspended on November 1, 1999, with the rescue vessels and aircraft moving instead to recovery operations. A look at the flight data from a pilot's perspective, with the help of simulations of the . The NTSB concluded that no mechanical failure scenario either they or the Egyptian investigation could come up with matched the evidence on the ground, and that even if mechanical failure was a factor, the 767's design would have made the situation recoverable. But as soon as he left, el-Batouty, who was supposed to fly the second five-hour section of the flight, entered the cockpit and ordered a younger first officer out of his chair. Their report on the crash was seemingly thorough, if controversial. At 1:48:39, he began to exclaim, "I rely on God," and, at 1:49:45, disengaged the autopilot. Roughly 20 minutes after take-off, Gamil El Batouty told Ahmed El Habashy that he would not be sleeping, so he would like to control the first portion of the flight while Habashy got some sleep. Rescue efforts continued by air and by sea, with a group of U.S. Coast Guard cutters covering 10,000sqmi (26,000km2) on October 31, 1999 with the hope of locating survivors, but no bodies were recovered from the debris field. The episode was broadcast with the title "EgyptAir 990" in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Asia. ''Hopefully, we can do it a lot more clearly than the last time,'' Mr. Schiliro, the assistant director in charge of the New York F.B.I. The plane rapidly descended, nose first toward the Atlantic Ocean. Thirty-two minutes after taking off from JFK, the Boeing 767, carrying 217 passengers and crew, slammed into the Atlantic Ocean, killing everyone on board. "This is the most suitable moment to fulfil what he is going to do.". A passenger was struck by fragments produced by the explosion . Everyone on board was killed. From the presence of a western debris field about 1,200ft (370m) from the eastern debris field, the NTSB concluded that the left engine and some small pieces of wreckage separated from the aircraft before water impact. The tensions that built in the confounding months after the T.W.A. Twenty-three years ago, on October 31st, 1999, an EgyptAir Boeing 767-300ER crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, killing all 217 people on board. Between 1:50:38 and 1:51:15, the 767 climbed from 16,000 feet (4,900m) feet back to 25,000 feet (7,600m), during which time its heading changed from 80 to 140. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. "[35], At least two Egyptian newspapers, Al Gomhuria and Al-Musawar, offered theories that the aircraft was accidentally shot down by the US. EgyptAir Flight 990 nose-dived into the Atlantic Ocean, 60 miles off the coast of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts at 1:50 am. Let me update you on. Between 1:50:21 and 1:50:23, as the captain began to pull back on his control column while relief first officer Al-Batouti moved both engines' start levers from the "run" to the "cutoff" position, shutting off fuel flow to the engines. Due to its similar role after several aircraft crashes, the Ramada became known as the "Heartbreak Hotel".[14][15]. The NTSB also determined that there was no mechanical failure in the aircraft. All 217 people on board were killed, and the airplane was destroyed. [3][4] However, the NTSB dismissed the ECAA report after it was found that no scenario could explain the doomed flight's final movements other than an intentional human act. Without fuel, both engines then ran down to a stop, causing the aircraft to lose all electrical power, including to both flight recorders and the aircraft's transponder; the last secondary radar return from the flight was received at 1:50:34, the FDR stopped recording at 1:50:36, and the CVR stopped recording at 1:50:38, approximately when the aircraft pulled out from the first dive. All 217 people on board were killed. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. An icon used to represent a menu that can be toggled by interacting with this icon. Some debris from the . [29] American investigators confirmed key aspects of Taha's information, but decided not to anger the Egyptian government further by issuing any official statement about Al-Batouti's motive. Batouty may have been a murderer or he may have been a confused pilot. Despite this, the captain was able to fight the lack of gravity and re-enter the cockpit. Egypt Air Flight 990 Linda speaks with NPR's Steve Inskeep about new data in the investigation of the crash of EgyptAir Flight 990. [10], The NTSB investigation centered on the actions of the relief first officer, Gameel Al-Batouti. "Pull with me! [3], Initially, there was speculation that the crash was related to the 1991 crash of Lauda Air Flight 004, which was caused by an uncommanded thrust reverser deployment, leading to a similar nose dive from cruising altitude. [3], The aircraft crashed in international waters, so the Egyptian government had the right to initiate its own search and rescue and investigation. A pilot on Flight 990 acknowledged on the new frequency. ( ) - Egyptair flight 990. Updates? 00:01:00. investigation of the crash of Egypt Air Flight nine ninety. Eventually, most passengers were identified by DNA from fractured remains recovered from the debris field and the ocean floor. More than 70 percent of the airplane was recovered from water about 230 feet (70 metres) deep. The Egyptian Civil Aviation Authority carried out its own investigation and issued a report that rejected the possibility that al-Batouti had caused the crash. Among the passengers were a large group of Egyptian military officers who were returning from a training exercise in the United States. While no formal procedure specified when each crew flew the aircraft, the active crew customarily made the takeoff and flew the first four to five hours of the flight. "[33], The NTSB investigation and its results drew criticism from the Egyptian government, which advanced several alternative theories about mechanical malfunction of the aircraft. The engines operated normally for the entire flight until they were shut down. Center also provided coordinates of Flight 990's last known position to Coast Guard rescue aircraft. Noon Films has recently finished a three-year production of an investigative documentary into the crash of Flight 990 bound for Cairo Egypt from New York in 1999. Captain El-Habashi was a veteran pilot who had been with EgyptAir for 36 years and had accumulated about 14,400 total flight hours, more than 6,300 of which were on the 767. sknyliv air show disaster videos. EgyptAir Flight 990 had originated in Los Angeles on Saturday evening. No cause has been determined. : The Crash of EgyptAir 990", "MS990 (MSR990) Egypt Air Flight Tracking and History - FlightAware", "Co-pilot 'crashed EgyptAir jumbo as act of revenge', Pre-accident photos of SU-GAP from Airliners.net, Cockpit Voice Recorder transcript and accident summary, Egypt's ambassador praises work on Flight 990 probe, EgyptAir 990 Passenger List St. Petersburg Times, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EgyptAir_Flight_990&oldid=1137713390, Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing 767, Airliner accidents and incidents in Massachusetts, Aviation accident investigations with disputed causes, Conspiracy theories involving aviation incidents, Airliner accidents and incidents involving deliberate crashes, Short description is different from Wikidata, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the National Transportation Safety Board, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 6 February 2023, at 02:07. 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